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" Act One, Scene One Two Roman tribunes, Flavius and Murellus, see the common people parading in the streets instead of working in their shops. They demand to know why the men are not working. A cobbler informs them that the people are celebrating Caesar's victory. Murellus is infuriated by this information, and calls the workers, "you blocks, you stones" (1.1.34). He then tells them that Caesar has not defeated an enemy, but rather that Ceasar has killed the sons of Pompey the Great. Pompey previously ruled Rome along with Caesar until their alliance fell apart, at which point they went to battle over the right to rule. Flavius's speech then causes the commoners to be ashamed of celebrating a victory party. They depart in more sober mood. Flavius and Murellus then prepare to remove the imperial crowns placed on all the statues of Caesar. Furthermore, they decide to drive the commoners back into their houses in an effort to prevent the city of Rome from celebrating Caesar's victory.
Act One, Scene Two Julius Caesar triumphantly returns to Rome on the festival of Lupercalia, celebrated on February 15. He is followed by Antony and Brutus, the mens' wives, and many followers. Caesar tells Antony to strike his wife Calpurnia during the festival (during which two men run through the street of Rome and hit those they meet with goatskin thongs, Antony is one of them) as a way of getting rid of her sterility. Antony responds with, "When Caesar says 'Do this', it is performed" (1.2.12). A soothsayer approaches Caesar and calls out for attention. Caesar allows him to speak, and the man tells Caesar to, "Beware the ides of March" (1.2.25). Caesar ignores this warning and calls the man a dreamer. Caesar then leaves with his assembled men. Brutus and Cassius remain on the stage. Cassius tells Brutus that he has noticed Brutus acting more serious lately. Brutus tells him that he is "with himself at war" (1.2.48) and that Cassius should not worry about it. After a shout and cheering from offstage, Brutus remarks that he is afraid the people will crown Caesar king. Cassius is thrilled to hear this, and tells Brutus that they were both born as free men the same way Caesar was. He tells Brutus a story in which he and Caesar were holding a swimming contest across the Tiber river, and Caesar started to drown. Cassius claims that he rescued Caesar and carried him to the shore. He then complains that Caesar has become so powerful that even though he once saved Caesar's life, he must now bow before him. Cassius then tells Brutus that "Brutus" is just as good a name as "Caesar", and that both names could just as easily rule Rome. He invokes the image of Brutus' ancestor who founded the Roman Republic and expelled the former kings. Brutus, afraid that Caesar will become a king, struggles to decide whether to take action with Cassius. However, he tells Cassius that he will not take any action at the present time. Caesar returns, accompanied by his followers. He turns to Antony and remarks, "Let me have men about me that are fat, / Sleek-headed men, and such as sleep a-nights. / Yon Cassius has a lean and hungry look. / He thinks too much. Such men are dangerous" (1.2.193-196). Antony dismisses Caesar's concern, but Caesar is not convinced that Cassius is completely trustworthy. He tells Antony to come with him and let him know if there is anything to be worried about. Casca remains onstage with Brutus and Cassius and tells them that the three shouts they heard were because Caesar turned down the crown three times. Apparently Antony offered him the crown three times, and Caesar turned it down three times . Casca then says that Caesar swooned and fell down with his mouth foaming at the lips. (Caesar was considered to be epileptic, called the "falling sickness".) When Caesar awoke, he begged to be forgiven for his infirmary. Casca then adds that the people forgave Caesar and worshipped him even more for turning away the crown. He says that Murellus and Flavius, the public tribunes, were removed from office for pulling the decorations off of Caesar's statues. Cassius then invites Casca to dinner the next night. Brutus also takes his leave, but agrees to meet with Cassius the next night as well. Cassius informs the audience in a soliloquy that he will fake several handwritten notes and throw them into Brutus' room in an attempt to make Brutus think the common people want him to take action against Caesar.
Act One, Scene Three Casca meets with Cicero, one of the great Roman orators, and tells him he has seen many strange things on the streets of Rome that night. He claims to have seen a slave with a burning left hand, a lion loose in the streets, and an owl hooting in the daytime. Cicero tells him men interpret things in their own way, and takes his leave. Cassius then arrives and tells Casca that there is a reason behind all of the strange events taking place in Rome. Casca asks him, "'Tis Caesar that you mean, is it not, Cassius?" (1.3.78). Casca tells him that the senators are planning to make Caesar a king the next morning. At this news, Cassius draws his dagger and threatens to die before ever allowing Caesar to achieve so much power. Casca shakes hands with Cassius and they agree to work together to prevent Caesar from seizing power. Cinna, a co-conspirator, arrives and takes a piece of paper from Cassius. Together they then leave to go throw Cassius' handwritten notes through Brutus' window. Cassius indicates that he is quite sure Brutus will join them within the next day.
Analysis Julius Caesar opens with the tribunes of the people chastising the plebeians for being fickle. They refer to the masses as "You blocks, you stones, you worse than senseless things!"(1.1.34). This imagery of the masses as stones will continue throughout the play. They are in fact a fickle group of people, easily swayed by whoever is speaking to them, as evidenced later in the play when Antony turns a hostile crowd into a mob against Brutus and Cassius. The play also holds much contemporary appeal. The barrenness of Calpurnia means that Caesar does not have an heir, something which many English worried about since Elizabeth also had no heir. However, in the play Caesar's desire for an heir has a darker meaning as well. He tells Antony, "Forget not your speed, Antonio, / To touch Calpurnia, for our elders say / The barren, touched in this holy chase, / Shake off their sterile curse" (1.2.8-11). This is interpreted by Brutus to be a sign that Caesar want an heir to create a dynasty, and is one more reason for Brutus to destroy Caesar. There is a great deal of interpretation and misinterpretation happening throughout the scenes. Cicero defines this misinterpretation when he tells Cassius, "Indeed, it is a strange-disposed time; / But men may construe things after their fashion, / Clean from the purpose of the things themselves" (1.3.33-35). He is implying that each man will interpret according to his nature, and ignore the realistic meaning of the signs. Caesar does this by dismissing the soothsayer as a dreamer and later ignoring Calpurnia's dream. The omens and dreams show up in the weather, where the heaven is in civil war, and with an owl is screeching during the day and a lion is loose in the streets. All these signs are dangerously disregarded by everyone in the play, not merely Caesar. In fact, when Cassius dies, Titinius points out his mistake, namely, "Alas, thou hast misconstrued every thing!" (5.3.83) The mirror, so often invoked in other plays, is also a significant image in Julius Caesar. Cassius asks Brutus, "Tell me, good Brutus, can you see your face?" (1.2.53). He continues, "That you have no such mirrors as will turn / Your hidden worthiness into your eye / That you might see your shadow...I, your glass" (1.2.58-60, 70). Essentially Cassius tells Brutus that he will be the mirror who reflects back to Brutus his true feelings and nature. This is a very dangerous moment of the play since we recognize that Cassius has a private agenda. He is of course a false mirror for Brutus, a mirror reflecting only what he wants Brutus to see. Cassius goes a step beyond being a false mirror and also plays a brilliant game with Brutus. He first compares Brutus to Caesar, saying "Brutus and Caesar: what should be in that 'Caesar'? / Why should that name be sounded more than yours? / Write them together: yours is as fair a name...Conjure with 'em: / 'Brutus' will start a spirit as soon as 'Caesar'" (1.2.143-148). This playing with the names of the two men hides a more sinister aspect of this speech. What about Cassius? His name is of course also like Caesar's in the same way Brutus' is. Thus for Cassius this hides the fact that he thinks he should be a Caesar and "conjure" with his name. Cassius subsequently cleverly twists his initial comparison of Brutus and Caesar into an argument showing how Brutus and Caesar differ. He does this by invoking Brutus' ancestor, Lucius Junius Brutus, a man famous for expelling the former kings of Rome. Brutus accepts this flattery and in fact will refer to it later when he is deciding whether or not to join the conspirators. The description of Cassius brings to mind the image of Shylock in Merchant of Venice. Caesar says, "Let me have men about me that are fat, / Sleek-headed men, and such as sleep a-nights. / Yon Cassius has a lean and hungry look. / He thinks too much. Such men are dangerous" (1.2.193-196). The description then parallels that of Shylock in that, "He [Cassius] reads much, / He is a great observer, and he looks / Quite through the deeds of men. He loves no plays, / As thou dost, Antony; he hears no music. (1.2.202-205). For a Shakespearian character, not liking music or enjoying plays is always construed as a negative feature. Thus Caesar is afraid of Cassius because he does not enjoy life, whereas Antony is almost famous for his ability to have a good time. A distinction must be made between two versions of Caesar in the play: Caesar as a concept and a person. Caesar informs us that, "I rather tell thee what is to be feared / Than what I fear, for always I am Caesar" (1.2.212-213). Caesar is in fact two separate men, something all of the conspirators fail to grasp. There is the weak man whom Cassius must save from drowning and who has epileptic fits, but there is also the aura of Caesar, the man who can say, "always I am Caesar." This is implicit in the very language used by Caesar. His every word is a command, he uses speech acts to define his actions, something that will be seen later in the young Octavius. Antony makes this very clear when he states, "When Caesar says 'Do this', it is performed" (1.2.12). The power of Caesar and Octavius to give orders and command action contrasts with the inability to communicate well throughout the play. In the first act the tribunes and plebeians are talking across each other rather than to one another, evidenced by the frustration the tribunes have in understanding the people. Later, Brutus and Cassius are constantly interrupted by shouts offstage, breaking their conversion and distracting Brutus. Deafness is one of the attributes of Caesar, and it is strongly contrasted with those who can hear. "Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf, / And tell me truly what thou think'st of him" (1.2.214-215). For Caesar, deafness is in fact symbolic of the way he dismisses the soothsayer and his wife Calpurnia rather than an actual inability to hear. This inability of Caesar to listen is a problem the conspirators do not have. In 2.1, the conversation between Ligarius and Brutus hinges on the fact that Brutus will tell Ligarius about the plot against Caesar only if he will listen. "Had you a healthful ear to hear of it" (2.1.318). In Richard II the fall of Richard is represented by his constant descent from the throne. This is also foreshadowed in Julius Caesar when Casca describes Caesar falling in the square from an epileptic fit. This imagery of falling also coincides with the decline of language immediately thereafter. Casca describes Cicero's speech as, "It was Greek to me" (1.2.178), an expression that has since become a cliche. The play is mostly focused on the actions of Brutus, a man who dominates the entire plot and has by far the most lines. This raises the obvious question of why the play is called Julius Caesar. One simple reason is that Shakespeare traditionally names his works after the ruler. However, the more likely reason is that the play is really all about Caesar. The internal conflict that Brutus must deal with is a struggle between his friendship for Caesar and his loyalty to the Roman Republic. Indeed, the influence of Caesar on the plot is most apparent when his ghost reappears to Brutus later on, indicating that the memory and myth of Caesar is far more powerful than the man ever was.

Act Two, Scene One Brutus is in his garden and has made up his mind that Caesar must be killed. His reasons are that Caesar is abusing his power and that he has ascended far too quickly. Lucius, Brutus' servant, brings him a letter he has found in Brutus' private room. The first line of the letter reads, "Brutus, thou sleep'st. Awake, and see thyself" (2.1.46). Brutus interprets the letter as if it were from all of Rome, telling him to slay Caesar and restore the republic. Brutus then asks Lucius what day it is, and he informs his master that it is the ides of March, or March 15th. A knock sounds on the door and Lucius leaves to answer it. Brutus takes this opportunity to inform the audience that he has not slept since Cassius first incited him against Caesar. Cassius is at the door, along with Casca, Decius, Cinna, Metellus and Trebonius, all of them conspirators against Caesar. Brutus invites them in and Cassius takes him aside. Soon Brutus rejoins the group of men and shakes all their hands, having agreed to join them. The men then discuss whether they should invite Cicero, the great orator, to join their plot, but Brutus convinces them against inviting him in. Cassius is further of the opinion that Mark Antony should be killed along with Caesar, but again Brutus is against the plan, calling it too "bloody." They plan to commit their murder of Caesar at the Senate at eight o'clock that morning (it is only three in the morning at this point). However, they are worried that Caesar will not show up because he has become so superstitious over the past few months. Decius tells them that he knows how to flatter Caesar, and assures them that he will convince Caesar to go to the Senate. Cassius and his followers then depart, leaving Brutus alone. Brutus' wife Portia arrives and tells him that he has left her bed and given her unkind looks. She begs him to tell her why he is so upset. He tells her that he is sick, to which she responds that it appears to be a sickness of the mind, not of the body. She again begs him to tell her what is wrong, asking him, "Think you I am no stronger than my sex, / Being so fathered and so husbanded?" (2.1.295-6). She then stabs herself in the thigh as proof of her courage. Brutus finally agrees to tell her what is going on, but sends her away before telling her because there is another knock on the door. Ligarius enters, pretending to be sick. He tells Brutus that he could be cured if only Brutus had a noble undertaking in mind. Brutus tells him that he does, and Ligarius pledges to follow Brutus on whatever task he leads him to.
Act Two, Scene Two Caesar, still in his nightgown, is terrified by a dream his wife Calpurnia has had in which she cried out, "Help, ho! They murder Caesar!" He orders a servant to go to the priests and have them sacrifice an animal in order to read the entrails for predictions of the future. Calpurnia arrives and tells him that he dare not leave the house that day. Caesar acts brave and tells her that he fears nothing, and that he will die when it is necessary for him to die. The servant returns and tells him that the sacrificed animal showed a very bad omen, namely the beast did not have a heart. Caesar insists on misinterpreting the omens, but Calpurnia begs him to blame her for his absence from the Senate, to which he finally agrees. However, Decius arrives at that moment in order to fetch Caesar to the Senate House. Caesar tells him to inform the Senate that he will not come this day. Decius claims that he will be mocked if he cannot provide a better reason than that. Caesar then tells him about Calpurnia's dream, which Decius reinterprets in a positive light. Decius then overwhelms Caesar's resistance by asking him if the Senate should dissolve until a better time when Calpurnia has more favorable dreams. Caesar tells Calpurnia that he was acting foolishly, and agrees to go to the Senate. Cassius and the other conspirators arrive at that moment to accompany him to the Senate. Antony also appears and joins the group of men who then escort Caesar out of his house.
Act Two, Scene Three Artemidorus has written Caesar a letter in which he names all of the conspirators against Caesar. He stands on a street near the Capitol and waits for Caesar to pass by on his way to the Senate so that he can hand Caesar the note.
Act Two, Scene Four Portia orders the servant Lucius to go to the Senate House. He asks her what he should do there, but she is so distracted that she is unable to tell him the purpose. She remarks to the audience, "I have a man's mind, but a woman's might. / How hard it is for women to keep counsel!" (2.4.7-8). She is alluding to the fact that she knows what Brutus is planning to do to Caesar, and is unwilling to keep it a secret. The soothsayer who previously warned Caesar sees her and speaks with her, informing Portia that he will try to once again warn Caesar about his fate.
Analysis Brutus is the only character in the play who cannot sleep. This is indicative of an internal struggle, an internal civil war. In fact, it is this struggle taking place within Brutus that will lead to external civil war in the end. Brutus says that, "Since Cassius first did whet me against Caesar / I have not slept" (2.1.61) He adds to this that his mind, "Like to a little kingdom, suffers then / The nature of an insurrection" (2.1.68-9). This is exactly what is really going to happen, namely an insurrection over the death of Caesar. Brutus faces this sleeplessness twice, when it is mentioned again in 4.3 at the time that Caesar's ghost appears to him. Women play a very marginalized role throughout Julius Caesar Portia and Calpurnia are the only two women with any roles, and they are confined to the domestic household. The differences between them are worth noting, however, because Shakespeare deliberately twins them. Portia is the first of the women to appear, and she struggles to convince Brutus that she is worthy of his confidence. She first kneels to Brutus, and then stands up and dramatically states, "Think you I am no stronger than my sex, / Being so fathered and so husbanded?" (2.1.295-6). She then stabs herself in her thigh to prove that she is as strong as any man. Brutus capitulates and agrees to tell her what has been troubling him. The victory of Portia in making Brutus listen to her contrasts with the failure of Calpurnia. The scenes follow one another directly, and Calpurnia even mimics Portia's kneeling. However, she is unable to convince Caesar to remain at home that day. In fact, the differences between what the two wives hope to achieve indicates the exact nature of their limited power. Portia must go to extreme lengths merely to make Brutus tell her what he is plotting, and it abundantly clear that she has no influence over his actual actions. Calpurnia therefore has no hope of actually prevailing over Caesar, because her goal is to actually force him to perform an action against his will. The great irony of this act is Calpurnia's dream, which is of a statue bleeding from a hundred holes with which Romans bath their hands. Decius first mocks the dream, saying, "Bring up the Senate till another time, / When Caesar's wife shall meet with better dreams" 2.2.98-99). He then brilliantly and deliberately misreads the dream, saying, "Your statue spouting blood in many pipes, / In which so many smiling Romans bathed, / Signifies that from you great Rome shall suck / Reviving blood" (2.2.85-88). The dream will of course be fulfilled in the next act, but so too will Decius' interpretation which forebodes the bloody civil wars to follow. Brutus, contrary to the way he tries to present himself, is a vain man. Cassius realizes that there is much more to Brutus than pure altruism, a fact which he uses to his advantage in several ways. Cassius first compares Brutus to Caesar by comparing their names, and subsequently tells Brutus he represents the best qualities of Caesar without the flaws. Next, Cassius drafts letters to Brutus which he has Cinna deliver by tossing them through the window or leaving them where Brutus will find them. It is Brutus' flaw that when he receives the first letter he responds to it according to his personal bias. Thus, like Malvolio in Twelfth Night, Brutus misconstrues the letter to mean what he wants it to mean. "Give me much light that I may read by them. [He] opens the letter and reads 'Brutus, thou sleep'st. Awake, and see thyself. Shall Rome, et cetera? Speak, strike, redress.' 'Brutus, thou sleep'st. Awake.' Such instigations have been often dropped Where I have took them up. 'Shall Rome, et cetera?' Thus must I piece it out: Shall Rome stand under one man's awe? What, Rome? 'Speak, strike, redress.' Am I entreated To speak and strike? O Rome, I make thee promise, If the redress will follow, thou receivest Thy full petition at the hand of Brutus." The interpretation Brutus gives this letter has nothing to do with the content, and everything to do with himself. He is so focused on his inner turmoil that when he reads the letter, he sees exactly what he wants to see. Thus he fills in the "et cetera" with "Shall Rome stand under one man's awe?" He further misunderstands the letter by attributing it to Rome, as if this were a call from the people rather than a note written by Cassius. The reason the letter is so effective at convincing Brutus to join the conspirators is because he has been looking for exactly this sort of stimulation all along. Brutus has hesitated to act against Caesar because he feels that needs the support of the Roman citizenry. Thus the letter provides him with the excuse to convince himself of what he has secretly been wishing for. Brutus' greatest error is in trying to split the murder into two categories. He wants to uphold the republic while simultaneously breaking the fundamental rules of the republic. He tells Cassius: Let us be sacrificers, but not butchers, Caius. We all stand up against the spirit of Caesar; And in the spirit of men there is no blood: O, that we then could come by Caesar's spirit, And not dismember Caesar! But, alas, Caesar must bleed for it! And, gentle friends, Let's kill him boldly, but not wrathfully; Let's carve him as a dish fit for the gods, Not hew him as a carcass fit for hounds: And let our hearts, as subtle masters do, Stir up their servants to an act of rage, And after seem to chide 'em. This shall make Our purpose necessary and not envious: Which so appearing to the common eyes, We shall be call'd purgers, not murderers. Yet "murderers" is exactly what Antony will call the conspirators. Brutus falsely tries to divide the indivisible by pretending this is not murder, when no one can deny that it is. Caesar's greatest achievement is his ability to outlive his mortal death. He accomplishes this through his use of the third person. "Caesar should be a beast without a heart" (2.2.42), "And Caesar shall go forth" (2.2.48). This contrasts with Brutus' use of "I": "That you do love me I am nothing jealous. What you would work me to I have some aim. How I have thought of this and of these times I shall recount hereafter. For this present, I would not, so with love I might entreat you" The effect of using the third person is to create a sense of permanence. The images of Caesar invoked include those of the Colossus and Mount Olympus, both massive and conceived of as standing forever.

Act Three, Scene One Caesar is headed to the Senate House with all of the conspirators surrounding him. He sees the soothsayer and tells the man that the ides of March have come. The soothsayer responds with, "Ay, Caesar, but not gone" (3.1.2). Next Artemidorus attempts to hand Caesar his letter, but Decius responds faster and tells Caesar the Trebonius has a document for him to read instead. Caesar tells Artemidorus that, "What touches us ourself shall be last served" (3.1.7). As they approach the Senate House, Trebonius manages to pull Mark Antony aside and away from Caesar. Caesar takes his seat in the Senate and proceeds to allow Metellus Cimber to petition him. The man throws himself down at Caesar's feet in order to beg for his brother's release from banishment, but is ordered to get up. Caesar tells him that fawning will not win him any favors, and that, "Know Caesar doth not wrong but with just cause" (3.1.47). At this Brutus comes forward and pleads for the man's brother. Cassius soon joins him. Caesar tells them his decision is, "constant as the Northern Star" and that he will not remove the banishment. Cinna approaches and Caesar tells him, "Hence! wilt thou lift up Olympus?" (3.1.73). Decius and Ligarius come forward and kneel before him as well. Finally Casca also kneels and says, "Speak hands for me" (3.1.76). They all stab Caesar who falls saying, "Et tu, Brute? - Then fall Caesar" (3.1.77). Cinna immediately starts crying out, "Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead!" (3.1.78) The other senators all run out of the Senate House in confusion while the conspirators stay together to protect themselves. Brutus finally tells them to, "Stoop, Romans, stoop. And let us bathe our hands in Caesar's blood Up to the elbows, and besmear our swords; Then walk we forth even to the marketplace, And, waving our red weapons o'er our heads, Let's all cry out 'peace, freedom, and liberty!'" (3.1.106-111). Cassius continues this exultation of their deed, saying, "How many ages hence / Shall this our lofty scene be acted over, / In states unborn and accents yet unknown!" (3.1.112-114). Cassius further adds that they will be known as, "The men that gave their country liberty" (3.1.118). The servant of Mark Antony arrives and falls prostrate before Brutus. He tells Brutus that Antony wishes to meet with him and learn why it was necessary for Caesar to die. Brutus promises that Antony will not be harmed and tells the servant to bring him. Cassius tells Brutus that he still has misgivings about Antony even though he has promised to not hurt him. Antony arrives and laments the death of Caesar. He begs the murderers, specifically Brutus, to tell him why Caesar had to be killed. Brutus tells him that Caesar was destroying the republic and had to be removed from power. Antony pretends to be convinced by this and asks the conspirators to, "Let each man render me his bloody hand" (3.1.185). He then shakes hands with each of them, naming them as he shakes the hand. The last hand he takes is that of Trebonius, who actually did not commit the murder because he was distracting Mark Antony at the time. Antony quickly recants his agreement with the murderers, and tells Cassius that he almost joined them after shaking their hands, but he was swayed not to at the sight of Caesar's body. He asks them if he may have permission to take the body to the marketplace and show it to the crowds. Brutus gives him permission to do this, but immediately Cassius pulls Brutus aside and says, "You know not what you do. Do not consent / That Antony speak in his funeral. / Know you how much the people may be moved / By that which he will utter?" (3.1.234-237). Brutus decides to give his speech first, and to allow Antony to speak afterwards, provided that Antony only says positive things about the conspirators. Antony agrees to this. Left alone with the body of Caesar, Antony says, "O pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth / That I am meek and gentle with these butcher" (3.1.257-258). He continues, with his speech becoming ever more violent, "Domestic fury and fierce civil strife / Shall cumber all the parts of Italy" (3.1.266-267). A servant sent from Octavius Caesar arrives and sees the body. Antony tells him to stay for the funeral eulogies in the marketplace and report back to Octavius on the state of affairs in Rome. Together they carry out Caesar's body.
Act Three, Scene Two Brutus and Cassius tell the plebeians to follow them in order to hear an explanation for the murder. They split the multitude into two parties and Cassius goes to give a speech to one group while Brutus speaks to the other group. Brutus tells the masses that he loved Caesar more than any of them, but that he killed Caesar because he loved Rome more. He says, "As Caesar loved me, I weep for him. As he was fortunate, I rejoice at it. As he was valiant, I honor him. But as he was ambitious, I slew him" (3.2.23-25). Brutus then asks them if they want him to kill himself for his actions, to which the crowd replies, "Live, Brutus, live, live!" (3.2.44). He lastly begs them listen to Mark Antony speak and to let him depart alone. He leaves Mark Antony alone to give his oration. Antony's speech begins with the famous lines, "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears" (3.2.70). His speech continually praises Brutus as "an honourable man" who has killed Caesar for being ambitious. He then presents all of the images of Caesar in which Caesar has not been ambitious, such as when Caesar thrice refused the crown on the day of Lupercal, or when Caesar filled the Roman treasury with ransom money from victories in war. The plebeians slowly become convinced that Caesar was not ambitious and that he was wrongly murdered. Antony then pulls out Caesar's will and tells them he should not read it to them. They beg him to read it, and he finally agrees, but puts if off by descending into the masses and standing next to the body of Caesar. He shows them the stab wounds and names the conspirators who gave Caesar the wounds. The crowd starts to surge away in anarchy, crying, "Revenge! About! Seek! Burn! Fire! Kill! Slay!" (3.2.196). Antony stops them and continues speaking. He finally reads them the will, in which Caesar has given every Roman citizen seventy-five drachmas. The plebeians react in a frenzy of anger against the men who killed Caesar, and carry away the body. Antony says, "Now let it work. Mischief, thou art afoot. / Take thou what course thou wilt" (3.2.248-249). The servant of Octavius arrives and tells Antony that Octavius is already in Rome and is waiting for him at Caesar's house.
Act Three, Scene Three Cinna the poet is unable to sleep that night and wanders through the streets of Rome. Some plebeians find him and demand to know who he is and what he is doing on the street. He tells them that he is going to Caesar's funeral as a friend of Caesar. When they ask him his name, he tells them Cinna, at which the plebeians cry, "Tear him to pieces! He's a conspirator" (3.3.27). Cinna responds by saying, "I am Cinna the poet, I am Cinna the poet" (3.3.28), but they attack him anyway and carry him away.
Analysis The images of Caesar throughout the play are those of constancy and greatness. "But I am constant as the northern star" (3.1.60), "Hence! wilt thou lift up Olympus?" (3.1.73). Cassius even compares Caesar to the Colossus, saying, "Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world / Like a Colossus, and we petty men / Walk under his huge legs and peep about" (1.2.136-138). Thus when Caesar falls, the world falls into chaos. There in no one able to replace Caesar's power immediately after his death, and so anarchy reigns until Octavius will be able to seize power in the distant future. Caesar's greatest flaw is his refusal to acknowledge his mortal side. He usually refers to himself in the third person, and thus fails to realize that he is also a man in need of protection. Artemidorus tries to hand him a note warning him about the dangers of the conspirators, but Caesar refuses because Artemidorus informs him that the note is personal. "What touches us ourself shall be last served" (3.1.7). There is remarkable irony in the moments immediately following Caesar's death. The murderers cry out, "Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead!" (3.1.78) They have committed an extralegal act and now cry out liberty. Further irony is found when they dip their hands in blood: "Stoop, Romans, stoop. And let us bathe our hands in Caesar's blood Up to the elbows, and besmear our swords; Then walk we forth even to the marketplace, And, waving our red weapons o'er our heads, Let's all cry out 'peace, freedom, and liberty!'" (3.1.106-111). Cassius remarks, "How many ages hence / Shall this our lofty scene be acted over, / In states unborn and accents yet unknown!" (3.1.112-114). These lines, used even during the French Revolution, are incredible in the way they combine the images of grotesque death through the bloody hands with the rallying cry of "peace, freedom, and liberty!" Brutus and the other conspirators completely fail to grasp the hypocrisy of their actions. Mark Antony makes no such mistake of believing the conspirators to be justified in crying "peace", and he is the first person to condemn the murderers for their actions. In a moment that appears to be Antony joining them, "Let each man render me his bloody hand" (3.1.185), he is actually marking them. He shakes hands with each of the conspirators, naming them as he shakes their hand. The last hand he takes is that of Trebonius, who actually did not commit the murder because he was distracting Mark Antony at the time, but nonetheless deserves to be marked. Antony's hands, now bloody from touching the other mens' hands, serve to put the blood of Caesar on Trebonius as well. Antony becomes a symbol of anarchy at this point, blaming the conspirators and marking them. He shows his taste for chaos when he is finally left alone with Caesar, saying, "O pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth / That I am meek and gentle with these butchers" (3.1.257-258). His final words indicate his goals, stating, "Domestic fury and fierce civil strife / Shall cumber all the parts of Italy" (3.1.266-267). Anarchy does indeed rule by the final scene of Act III, in which an innocent Cinna the poet is killed because of his name. This scene, in which the plebeians are unwilling to listen to Cinna, expresses the death of not only order but also of literature. Cinna cries out, "I am Cinna the Poet" (3.3.28), at which the crowd simply changes its charges against him to, "Tear him for his bad verses" (3.3.29). The death of Cinna is an attack on men of words and literature, and marks the first time a poet is ignored or killed. The second time comes when the poet enters the Brutus' tent and tries to separate Brutus and Cassius whom he thinks want to harm each other. He too is removed from the scene and ignored. Critics have often pointed out the tactical errors of Brutus which lead to his eventual loss of power. his first mistake is allowing Mark Antony to live, in which he convinces Cassius not to spill more blood. However, his greatest mistake is when he allows Antony to speak to the crowds. Cassius' fears are completely justified because Antony is able to turn the crowd against the conspirators. Brutus further makes the inane mistake of leaving Antony alone with the crowd, and thereby loses control of the situation. Antony realizes the nature of the people he is dealing with, and tells the crowd, "You are not wood, you are not stones, but men" (3.2.139). This contrasts with Murellus in the very first scene who calls the crowd, "You blocks, you stones, you worse than senseless things" (1.1.34). Antony is able to influence the crowd because he uses repetition and poetry, two things necessary for influencing "blocks" who need to have things made as simple as possible. He is thereby able to overcome Brutus, who instead speaks in prose, syllogisms and logic. Antony, in spite of his brilliant rhetoric, is unable to win the crowd to his side without using Caesar, though. This indicates that Caesar is still the only man able to speak directly to the people, even after his death. Antony says that he would, "put a tongue / In every wound of Caesar that should move / The stones of Rome to rise and mutiny" (3.2.219-221). The wounds of Caesar are called mouths, and we can see how Antony even has to use the words of Caesar's will in order to cause the complete anarchy he desires.

Act Four, Scene One Antony, Octavius and Lepidus have banded together in a counter-conspiracy to destroy the men who killed Caesar. Antony has a paper with names on it and he says, "These many, then, shall die; their names are pricked" (4.1.1). The men then mark more names of people who must die, including the brother of Lepidus and the son of Mark Antony's sister. Antony states that, "He shall not live. Look, with a spot I damn him" (4.1.6). Antony then sends Lepidus to Caesar's house to fetch the will. He hopes to somehow reduce the amount of money that needs to be paid to the beneficiaries. After Lepidus leaves, Antony tells Octavius that Lepidus was a poor choice to form the second triumvirate with. Octavius says, "You may do your will; / But he's a tried and valiant soldier" (4.1.28). Antony implies in his speech that he will eventually remove Lepidus from rule, but that they should keep him a while longer.
Act Four, Scene Two Brutus has brought his armies to Sardis (now in Western Turkey) and set up camp there. A messenger whom he sent to Cassius informs him that Cassius is not as friendly anymore. Brutus remarks, "Thou hast described / A hot friend cooling" (4.2.18-19). At that moment Cassius' army arrives and Cassius himself appears. He is angry with Brutus and starts to accuse him of wronging him, but Brutus makes him enter the tent so that they do not appear to be fighting in front of their men. Cassius is upset that Brutus publicly disgraced a friend of his for taking bribes from the Sardians. Apparently Cassius had sent several letter to Brutus urging him to release the man, but Brutus refused. Brutus is furious that Cassius would even consider defending a man for taking bribes, arguing that Caesar was killed for exactly that reason. He states, "What, shall one of us, / That struck the foremost man of all this world / But for supporting robbers, shall we now / Contaminate our fingers with base bribes" (4.2.73-76). Cassius and Brutus end up threatening each other, with each man convinced he is better able to lead the armies than the other man. The two men continue arguing, and Brutus finally tells Cassius that he is upset that Cassius refused to send him gold with which to pay his soldiers. Brutus says, "I did send / To you for gold to pay my legions, / Which you denied me" (4.2.130-132). Cassius denies it, and in exasperation pulls out his dagger and offers it to Brutus. He tells Brutus to kill him if he is such an awful man, but Brutus recants and they finally embrace in friendship. A poet forces his way into the tent and demands that the generals (Cassius and Brutus) not be left alone. He argues that there is a grudge between them. They however, having already resumed their friendship, order him taken away. Brutus finally informs Cassius that Portia is dead. Cassius, not knowing this beforehand, is surprised by the news and asks how it happened. Brutus tells him that Portia, left alone in the city after he fled, was upset that Octavius and Antony had seized control of Rome. She therefore took live embers and swallowed them, thus killing herself. Titinius and Messala arrive and Brutus immediately changes the subject. Cassius takes him aside and asks, "Portia, art thou gone?" (4.2.218). Brutus tells him not to speak of her anymore. Brutus and Messala compare letters they have received informing them that Antony and Octavius are marching towards them from Greece. Messala tells Brutus that over one hundred senators have been put to death, but Brutus says his letter only mentioned seventy, including the orator Cicero. Messala then asks Brutus if he has heard anything about Portia, to which Brutus replies, "Nothing, Messala" (4.2.236). Brutus and Cassius must then decide whether to wait for Antony and Octavius in Sardis or march to meet the opposing army in Philippi. Cassius would prefer to wait and keep his men fresh, but Brutus thinks that the enemy is gaining in power every day and therefore needs to be stopped as soon as possible. Cassius finally agrees with him and leaves for his tent to go to bed before leaving in the morning. Brutus remains awake with his servant Lucius. He orders two men, Claudio and Varrus, to enter his tent and sleep there in case he needs to send them on an errand during the night. Brutus then asks Lucius to play him a song, which he does until he falls asleep with his instrument. Brutus takes his book and starts reading, but the ghost of Julius Caesar enters and causes the flame to dim. Brutus demands to know who has entered the room, and the ghost tells him, "Thy evil spirit, Brutus" (4.2.333). Brutus then asks the ghost why he has come, and is told that the ghost will see him again at Philippi. The ghost leaves, and Brutus immediately wakes up everyone in the room. He orders Lucius to go back to sleep, and tells Varrus and Claudio to go inform Cassius that he should take his army and march on ahead.
Analysis Antony, Octavius and Lepidus differ significantly from the original conspirators. They have none of the passion or idealism of Brutus and are perfectly willing to condemn their enemies to death. "These many, then, shall die; their names are pricked" (4.1.1). The fact that they are willing to kill relatives and friends makes their counter-conspiracy seem all the more deadly serious. Antony's statement, "He shall not live. Look, with a spot I damn him" (4.1.6) brings to the forefront the calculating nature of the new rulers. There is a great deal of irony in the fact that Antony wants to remove Lepidus. They have only just formed the second triumvirate, a ruling group that will not last long. Antony's desire to get rid of Lepidus foreshadows the fact that Octavius will be able to remove Antony in the near future. Brutus stands out as an example of Republican stoicism on the battlefield. He describes the cause of Portia's death as, "Impatience of my absence" (4.2.204). His calmness when speaking about his wife's death frightens even Cassius, who remarks that, "How scaped I killing when I crossed you so?" (4.2.202). He is further taken aback by the ease with which Brutus dismisses the topic when Titinius and Messala arrive. Brutus immediately changes the subject, forcing Cassius to take him aside and ask, "Portia, art thou gone?" (4.2.218). Brutus tells him not to speak of her anymore. Later, when Messala asks Brutus if he has heard anything about Portia, Brutus replies, "Nothing, Messala" (4.2.236). Stoicism and honor mean everything to Brutus, and like Hotspur in I Henry IV, he cannot show his weaknesses to his troops. Letters and poetry appear a great deal throughout this play, probably more than in any other play Shakespeare wrote. We see in the first acts the letter from Artemidorus, the letter from Cassius to Brutus, and the death of Cinna the Poet. In this act we are revisited by a poet whom Brutus orders removed from his tent. There are also letters which are incompatible, and Brutus states, "Mine [a letter] speaks of seventy senators that died / By their proscriptions, Cicero being one" (4.2.229-230). This mention of perhaps the greatest orator Cicero, a man identified closely with words, is almost an afterthought. Even Brutus, when trying to read his book, is unable to continue reading because the ghost of Caesar interrupts him. We therefore see the destruction and dismissal of literature and poetry after the death of Caesar, from banished or killed poets to unverifiable letters.

Act Five, Scene One Octavius and Antony, located on a battlefield in Philippi, have just learned that Brutus and Cassius are marching to their location. A messenger arrives and tells both generals that the enemy is so close that they must do something quickly. Antony orders Octavius to, "lead your battle softly on / Upon the left hand of the even field" (5.1.16-17). Octavius contradicts him, and decides to march on the right hand side. Antony is annoyed by this, asking, "Why do you cross me in this exigent?" (5.1.19). Octavius replies, "I do not cross you, but I will do so" (5.1.20). Brutus and Cassius arrive at the head of their army. Octavius asks if he should give the sign of battle, and Antony says, "No, Caesar, we will answer on their charge" (5.1.24). The generals all meet and start to insult each other. Antony accuses Brutus and Cassius of being "villains," whereas Cassius tells Brutus that they would not have to listen to Antony now if he had been allowed to kill him as he originally wanted to. The men refuse to back down and they are forced to return to their armies and prepare for battle. Cassius calls Messala over and tells him that this battle is similar to the one Pompey fought [and lost to Caesar]. He points out that although not normally superstitious, he is upset by the fact that two eagles who accompanied the army all the way from Sardis have been replaced by crows and ravens, symbols of bad things to come. He ends his speech by stating, "Our army lies ready to give the ghost" (5.1.88). Cassius then talks to Brutus and asks him what he will do if they should lose the battle. Brutus rejects suicide, but also tells Cassius that he will never be dragged through the street of Rome as a prisoner. The two generals say farewell to one another and return to their respective armies to prepare for battle.
Act Five, Scene Two The battle has started and Brutus gives Messala orders to take to Cassius. He tells Messala to inform Cassius that he needs to advance faster in order to catch Octavius' flank which is not fighting very well.
Act Five, Scene Three Cassius is upset because he is afraid his men are running away from the field of battle. He tells Titinius that he personally killed his standard-bearer who was trying to run away and took up the banner himself. Titinius informs him that Brutus "gave the word too early" (5.3.5) and that his soldiers quickly started looting the enemy camp once they captured it. In the meantime, Antony's army has been able to surround Cassius. Pindarus arrives and tells Cassius to run further away. He informs his general that the tents have been taken and are burning in the distance. Cassius sends Titinius to check on some soldiers and find out if they are his men or not, and simultaneously sends Pindarus up a hill to watch and see what happens. Pindarus tells him that Titinius is captured by the troops. Cassius calls Pindarus back down from the hill and hands him the sword with which he stabbed Caesar. He tells Pindarus to take the sword and stab him with it. Pindarus obeys and kills Cassius on the spot before running away himself. Titinius and Messala return to where Cassius is lying. Titinius has a wreath of laurels on his head, a sign of victory, and is telling Messala that Brutus has defeated Octavius but Antony has conquered Cassius' army. He sees Cassius on the ground and realizes that Cassius was confused about the events taking place on the battle field. Titinius sends Messala to Brutus to tell him what has happened. He then turns to Cassius' body and says, "Alas, thou hast misconstrued everything" (5.3.83). Titinius then picks up Cassius' sword and kills himself. Brutus arrives and sees the two dead bodies lying on the ground. He remarks, "Oh Julius Caesar, thou art mighty yet" (5.3.93). Brutus quickly recovers from the loss of his confederate and immediately orders the soldiers to prepare for another battle, this time against Antony.
Act Five, Scene Four Brutus appears again, still leading his troops. He tells his men to continue fighting and leaves them in the midst of battle. Cato valiantly fights but is killed. Lucillius pretends to be Brutus and challenges the soldiers, but he is quickly captured. The soldiers send for Antony, thinking they have finally captured Brutus. Antony arrives and recognizes Lucillius and tells his soldiers that although they did not get Brutus, they still captured a nobleman. He orders his soldiers to continue fighting.
Act Five, Scene Five Brutus arrives accompanied by several stranglers from his defeated army. He first asks Clitus and then Dardanius to kill him so that he will not be captured. They both refuse and go to stand away from him. He then asks Volumnius to kill him as a friend, but Volumnius tells him, "That's not the office for a friend, my lord" (5.5.29). At the sound of another call to battle, Brutus hastily gets up and orders his men to flee ahead of him. He keeps Strato with him, and finally convinces Strato to hold the sword while he impales himself upon it. Antony and Octavius arrive with their army. They find Brutus dead on the ground and Strato nearby. Strato informs them how Brutus died, and Antony comments about Brutus, "This was the noblest Roman of them all" (5.5.67). He says that of all the conspirators only Brutus really believed that he was killing Caesar to uphold the Roman Republic. Antony continues, saying, "his life was gentle, and the elements / So mixed in him that nature might stand up / And say to all the world 'This was a man'" (5.5.74). Octavius orders the body to be placed in his tent and gives the order to cease fighting. He ends the play with the lines, "So call the field to rest, and let's away / To part the glories of this happy day" (5.5.79-80).
Analysis For the first time in the play Octavius emerges as a new leader. It has been said that each act of the play belongs to a different man. Thus the first act belongs to Cassius, the second to Brutus, the third to Caesar, the fourth to Antony, and the last act to Octavius. When Antony orders Octavius to, "lead your battle softly on / Upon the left hand of the even field" (5.1.16-17), he is contradicted for the first time. Octavius decides to march on the right hand side instead. Antony, annoyed by this challenge to his power, asks, "Why do you cross me in this exigent?" (5.1.19). Octavius replies, "I do not cross you, but I will do so" (5.1.20). This invocation of the word "will" is reminiscent of Caesar's use of the word. The line also has the double meaning that Octavius will eventually cross Antony in the sense that he kicks him out of power. By the end of Act Five, Octavius will be completely in charge. Unlike Caesar who had a personal side, Octavius is ruthless, barely human, and mostly a politician without moral scruples or emotional conflicts. This shift in power is signified through the use of names. Up until Antony is challenged by Octavius, Octavius is referred to as "young Octavius." Only after he asserts his authority does this change in a radical way. Asking Antony if he should give the sign of battle, Antony says, "No, Caesar, we will answer on their charge" (5.1.24). This marks the first time Octavius is called Caesar, and it is important that he is only called by that name for the rest of the play, even by Cassius. The omens so numerous in the first act reappear here as well. In fact, Cassius is so overwhelmed by the omens that he compares this battle to the one that Pompey fought and lost. He speaks of the eagles being replaced by kites and ravens, considered very bad sign at the time. This superstition leads him to believe that he will lose the battle, and he remarks, "Our army lies ready to give the ghost" (5.1.88). The ghost, of course, is that of Caesar, whose presence and memory is the entire reason the battle. The deaths of Cassius and Brutus both make the point that Caesar is as strong as ever, and that it is his spirit which dominates this entire last scene. Cassius' last words are, "Caesar, thou art revenged, / Even with the sword that killed thee" (5.3.44-45). Brutus also invokes the image of Caesar, not only when dying, but also when he sees Cassius dead on the ground. He says, "Oh Julius Caesar, thou art mighty yet" (5.3.93). This recognition that they killed the wrong Caesar, the private one rather than the public one, is perhaps only fully understood by Brutus in those lines. As he commits suicide he again mentions Caesar, saying, "Caesar, now be still. / I killed not thee with half so good a will." (5.5.50-51). Titinius, when he discovers Cassius, recalls the words of Cicero in the beginning about men construing the plot as they saw fit. He speaks to Cassius and says, "Alas, thou hast misconstrued everything" (5.3.83). This remark, meant to imply that Cassius killed himself because he was too quick to assume defeat, also is a comment on the fact that Cassius killed Caesar. It can easily be interpreted as meaning that Cassius misconstrued the facts about Caesar, allowing him to convince Brutus to join the conspirators through his plots. This further implies that even the necessity of killing Caesar was misconstrued, thus giving it a literal meaning, "thou hast misconstrued everything." At Brutus' death, Strato comments, "For Brutus only overcame himself" (5.5.56). This represents the fact that for Brutus this play is a tragedy, a play about dealing with the internal struggle of whether to support Caesar as a friend or kill him as a dictator. It is this internal struggle which causes the civil war between Brutus and Antony. Brutus' inability to overcome his internal struggle by the end allows Antony to say, "This was the noblest Roman of them all" (5.5.67).He is implying that it is only Brutus really believed that he was killing Caesar to uphold the Roman Republic. However, this interpretation is not necessarily supported by the actions of Brutus, although certainly by his words. After all, Brutus is easily flattered by Cassius into comparing himself to Caesar, and further is able to misconstrue the letter Cassius sends him. What cannot be denied is that Brutus is the only conspirator to maintain his humanity and dignity throughout the play. He stands as a symbol of honor against Cassius who wishes to take bribes, and his rhetoric implies that he would never have killed Caesar except to defend the Roman Republic. Thus Antony continues his epilogue for Brutus, saying, "his life was gentle, and the elements / So mixed in him that nature might stand up / And say to all the world 'This was a man'" (5.5.74) Brutus' tragic ending is, however, mirrored by the ascension of Octavius. This is really a two-part ending, an ending that combines the sad defeat of the "noblest Roman" with the victorious emergence of a new Caesar. It is therefore Octavius and not Antony who ends the play with the lines, "So call the field to rest, and let's away / To part the glories of this happy day" (5.5.79-80). Happy is hardly the words the audience would use to describe what has taken place. Yet for Octavius it is indeed a happy ending, one which will be followed by his assumption of the throne and the empire. "(http://www.gradesaver.com/ClassicNotes/Titles/julius_caesar/fullsumm.html)